SONY ANSWERING MACHINES

An Answering Machine, also known as an answerphone, is a device that automatically records voice mail from unanswered telephone calls. Answering machine is called as an electronic device that answers the telephone and records messages. The device would be attached to a telephone and could be set to record a voice message from a caller. By utilizing a clock attachment, the machine could also forward the messages as well as keep track of the time they were made. Unlike voicemail, which can be a centralized or networked system that performs a similar function, an answering machine must be installed in the customer's premises alongside or incorporated within the customer's telephone.

Sony Answering Machines User's Guide Device Manuals provide free download of Sony Answering Machine Tape SPP-A400 User Guide for you. The user's guide or owner's manual hardcopy was packaged with the product box at no cost. The original digital copy of user's guide or owner's manual can be downloaded from Sony. Sony is one of the main manufacturers of Answering Machines. Sony SPP-A400 Answering Machines was used popularly.

Device Manuals provide free download of Sony Answering Machine Digital TAM-100 User Guide for you. The user's guide or owner's manual hardcopy was packaged with the product box at no cost. The original digital copy of user's guide or owner's manual can be downloaded from Sony. Sony is one of the main manufacturers of Answering Machines. Sony TAM-100 Answering Machines was used popularly.

MAIN BOARD UTILITY

MAIN BOARD UTILITY
A motherboard is the central printed circuit board (PCB) in some complex electronic systems, such as modern personal computers. The motherboard is sometimes alternatively known as the mainboard, system board, or, on Apple computers, the logic board. It is also sometimes casually shortened to mobo. Motherboards contain some non-volatile memory to initialize the system and load an operating system from some external peripheral device. Microcomputers such as the Apple II and IBM PC used read-only memory chips, mounted in sockets on the motherboard. At power-up, the central processor would load its program counter with the address of the boot ROM, and start executing ROM instructions, displaying system information on the screen and running memory checks, which would in turn start loading memory from an external or peripheral device (disk drive). If none is available, then the computer can perform tasks from other memory stores or display an error message, depending on the model and design of the computer and version of the BIOS. Most modern motherboard designs use a BIOS, stored in an EEPROM chip soldered to the motherboard, to bootstrap the motherboard. (Socketed BIOS chips are widely used, also.) By booting the motherboard, the memory, circuitry, and peripherals are tested and configured. This process is known as a computer Power-On Self Test (POST) and may include testing some of the following devices: floppy drive, network controller, CD-ROM drive, DVD-ROM drive, SCSI hard drive, IDE, EIDE, or SATA hard drive, External USB memory storage device. Open Drivers collect Mainboard Drivers and Utilities driver for one-stop download, update and installation service. All Mainboard Drivers and Utilities for VIA, Tyan, Soltek, SiS, SigmaTel, nVIDIA, MSI, Leadtek, JMicron, Intel, GigaByte, Gainward, EPoX, ECS, Chaintech, Biostar, ATI Technology, ASUS, Aopen, AMD, ALI, Acorp, Abit have been listed in Open Drivers. Drivers for Mainboard Drivers and Utilities have been categorized by device manufacturers. The main driver developers of Mainboard Drivers and Utilities can be listed.

DISPLAY VIDEO DRIVER
A video card, also known as a graphics accelerator card, display adapter, or graphics card, is an expansion card whose function is to generate and output images to a display. Some video cards offer added functions, such as video capture, TV tuner adapter, MPEG-2 and MPEG-4 decoding, FireWire, light pen, TV output, or the ability to connect multiple monitors. A misconception regarding high end video cards is that they are strictly used for video games. High end video cards have a much broader range of capability; for example, they play a very important role for graphic designers and 3D animators, who tend to require optimum displays as well as faster rendering. Video cards are not used exclusively in IBM type PCs; they have been used in devices such as Commodore Amiga (connected by the slots Zorro II and Zorro III), Apple II, Apple Macintosh, Atari Mega ST/TT (attached to the MegaBus or VME interface), Spectravideo SVI-328, MSX, and in video game consoles. Video hardware can be integrated on the mainboard, as it often happened with early computers; in this configuration it was sometimes referred to as a video controller or graphics controller. The video BIOS or firmware contains the basic program that governs the video card's operations and provides the instructions that allow the computer and software to interact with the card. It may contain information on the memory timing, operating speeds and voltages of the graphics processor and RAM and other information. It is sometimes possible to change the BIOS (e.g. to enable factory-locked settings for higher performance) although this is typically only done by video card overclockers, and has the potential to irreversibly damage the card. Open Drivers collect Display and Video driver for one-stop download, update and installation service. All Display and Video for Yuan, XGI, Voyetra, Village Tronic, VideoLogic, VIA, V-Gear, Typhoon, Tyan, Twinhan, Trident, Terratec, Tekram, SiS, SIIG, Sapphire, S3 Graphics, Prolink, PowerVR, Pinnacle Systems, PcChips, nVIDIA, MSI, Matrox, LifeView, Leadtek, Kworld, Intel, InnoVISION Multimedia, Hercules, Hauppauge, GigaByte, Genius, Gainward, Elsa, DisplayLink, Diamond, Creative, Compro, Cirrus Logic have been listed in Open Drivers. Drivers for Display and Video have been categorized by device manufacturers. The main driver developers of Display and Video can be listed

EDIMAX ROUTER

EDIAMX-ROUTER

BR-6204WgWireless 802.11b/g Broadband Router with 4 Ports Switch
Supports IEEE802.11b/g with Data Transfer Rate upto 54Mbps
Supports 64/128 Bit WEP and WPA Encryption
supports WAN Connection by PPPoE/Static IP/Dynamic IP/PPTP/DHCP/L2TP
Supports Special Applications (Port Triggers)
Supports WDS and DDNS (DynDNS) function
Supports VPN Pass Through (IPSec/PPTP)

Overview
Internet Connection Sharing:

Integrated 4-port Ethernet switch and wireless 802.11b/g standards, BR-6204Wg is able to maximize Cable or xDSL Internet connection. With the built-in DHCP server and NAT function, it allows up to 253 wired or wireless devices share the Internet connection at the same time.

WISP (Wireless ISP):

The BR-6204Wg can share wireless Internet connection. It repeats the signal from wireless Internet service provider to your home or office and allows wired and wireless computers connect to the Internet simultaneously.

EZmax Multi-languages Setup Wizard:

A unique 16-language setup wizard is included in the CD ROM. You can select your native language and follow the simple steps to setup Internet connection, password, SSID, wireless security and firmware upgrade.

Port Forwarding and DMZBR:

6204Wg supports port forwarding and DMZ. You can enjoy the Internet game play, setup a web server and execute other applications required ports opening.

Special Applications:

The BR-6204Wg provides extra functions to enjoy additional resources on the Internet. The Universal Plug and Play (UPnP) function allows you to enjoy applications like Messenger and games without any hassle. The port forwarding, port triggering and port mapping function allows you to use your VoIP, IPcam, IPTV at home to maximise your Internet connection

FIRE ALARM

An automatic fire alarm system is designed to detect the unwanted presence of fire by monitoring environmental changes associated with combustion. In general, a fire alarm system is either classified as automatic, manually activated, or both. Automatic fire alarm systems can be used to notify people to evacuate in the event of a fire or other emergency, to summon emergency forces aid, and to prepare the structure and associated systems to control the spread of fire and smoke.

Design
After the fire protection goals are established - usually by referencing the minimum levels of protection mandated by the appropriate model building code, insurance agencies, and other authorities - the fire alarm designer undertakes to detail specific components, arrangements, and interfaces necessary to accomplish these goals. Equipment specifically manufactured for these purposes are selected and standardized installation methods are anticipated during the design. In the United States, NFPA 72, The National Fire Alarm Code is an established and widely used installation standard.

Building safety interfaces

fire alarm pull station.
Magnetic Smoke Door Holders: Wall or floor mounted solenoids or electromagnets controlled by a fire alarm system or detection component that magnetically secures spring-loaded self-closing smoke tight doors in the open position. Designed to de-magnetize to allow automatic closure of the door on command from the fire control or upon failure of the power source, interconnection or controlling element. Stored energy in the form of a spring or gravity can then close the door to restrict the passage of smoke from one space to another in an effort to maintain a tenable atmosphere on either side of the door during evacuation and fire fighting efforts.
Duct Mounted Smoke Detection: Smoke detection mounted in such a manner as to sample the airflow through duct work and other plenums specifically fabricated for the transport of environmental air into conditioned spaces. Interconnection to the fan motor control circuits are intended to stop air movement, close dampers and generally prevent the recirculation of toxic smoke and fumes produced by fire into occupiable spaces.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF USB

Advantages
Data stored on flash drives are impervious to scratches and dust, and flash drives are mechanically very robust making them suitable for transporting data from place to place and keeping it readily at hand. Most personal computers support USB as of 2009.
Flash drives also store data densely compared to many removable media. In mid-2009, 128 GB drives became available, with the ability to hold many times more data than a DVD.
Compared to hard drives, flash drives use little power, have no fragile moving parts, and for low capacities are small and light.
Flash drives implement the USB mass storage device class so that most modern operating systems can read and write to them without installing device drivers. The flash drives present a simple block-structured logical unit to the host operating system, hiding the individual complex implementation details of the various underlying flash memory devices. The operating system can use any file system or block addressing scheme. Some computers can boot up from flash drives.
Some flash drives retain their memory even after being submerged in water, even through a machine wash, although this is not a design feature and not to be relied upon. Leaving the flash drive out to dry completely before allowing current to run through it has been known to result in a working drive with no future problems. Channel Five's Gadget Show cooked a flash drive with propane, froze it with dry ice, submerged it in various acidic liquids, ran over it with a jeep and fired it against a wall with a mortar. A company specializing in recovering lost data from computer drives managed to recover all the data on the drive.All data on the other removable storage devices tested, using optical or magnetic technologies, were destroyed.

Disadvantages
Like all flash memory devices, flash drives can sustain only a limited number of write and erase cycles before failure. This should be a consideration when using a flash drive to run application software or an operating system. To address this, as well as space limitations, some developers have produced special versions of operating systems (such as Linux in Live USB)or commonplace applications (such as Mozilla Firefox) designed to run from flash drives. These are typically optimized for size and configured to place temporary or intermediate files in the computer's main RAM rather than store them temporarily on the flash drive.
Most USB flash drives do not include a write-protect mechanism, although some have a switch on the housing of the drive itself to keep the host computer from writing or modifying data on the drive. Write-protection makes a device suitable for repairing virus-contaminated host computers without risk of infecting the USB flash drive itself.
A drawback to the small size is that they are easily misplaced, left behind, or otherwise lost. This is a particular problem if the data they contain are sensitive. As a consequence, some manufacturers have added encryption hardware to their drives -- although software encryption systems achieve the same thing, and are universally available for all USB flash drives. Others just have the possibility of being attached to keychains, necklaces and lanyards.

Compared to other portable storage devices, for example external hard drives, USB flash drives have a high price per unit of storage and are only available in comparatively small capacities; but hard drives have a higher minimum price, so in the smaller capacities (16 GB and less), USB flash drives are much less expensive than the smallest available hard drives.

As highly portable media, USB flash drives are easily lost or stolen. Several measures can be used to prevent the data on lost USB flash drives from being accessed by unauthorized users. Some of these measures, such as password-protected encryption, are used on other storage mediums such as floppy disks, hard disk drives, and CD-ROMs in an attempt to keep data from falling into the wrong hands. However, as history has shown, any method of preventing unauthorized access is only secure until it has been compromised.
In addition to securing on-board data, USB flash drives are increasingly being called upon to protect the environments in which they are used. In particular, USB flash drives have been used to transfer malware and autorun worms, usually unbeknownst to their owners, which can then infect and wreck havoc upon an otherwise secure network.

PENDRIVE

A USB flash drive consists of a NAND-type flash memory data storage device integrated with a USB (Universal Serial Bus) interface. USB flash drives are typically removable and rewritable, much smaller than a floppy disk, and most USB flash drives weigh less than an ounce.Storage capacities typically range from 64 MB to 128 GB with steady improvements in size and price per capacity. Some allow 1 million write or erase cycles and have 10-year data retention, connected by USB 1.1 or USB 2.0.
USB flash drives offer potential advantages over other portable storage devices, particularly the floppy disk. They have a more compact shape, operate faster, hold much more data, have a more durable design, and operate more reliably due to their lack of moving parts. Additionally, it has become increasingly common for computers to be sold without floppy disk drives. USB ports, on the other hand, appear on almost every current[update] mainstream PC and laptop. These types of drives use the USB mass storage standard, supported natively by modern operating systems such as Windows, Mac OS X, Linux, and other Unix-like systems. USB drives with USB 2.0 support can also operate faster than an optical disc drive, while storing a larger amount of data in a much smaller space.
Nothing actually moves in a flash drive: the term drive persists because computers read and write flash-drive data using the same system commands as for a mechanical disk drive, with the storage appearing to the computer operating system and user interface as just another drive.
A flash drive consists of a small printed circuit board protected inside a plastic, metal, or rubberized case, robust enough for carrying with no additional protection—in a pocket or on a key chain, for example. The USB connector is protected by a removable cap or by retracting into the body of the drive, although it is not likely to be damaged if exposed (but it may damage other items, for example a bag it is placed in). Most flash drives use a standard type-A USB connection allowing plugging into a port on a personal computer, but drives for other interfaces also exist.

DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION

One end of the device is fitted with a single male type-A USB connector. Inside the plastic casing is a small printed circuit board. Mounted on this board is some simple power circuitry and a small number of surface-mounted integrated circuits (ICs). Typically, one of these ICs provides an interface to the USB port, another drives the onboard memory, and the other is the flash memory.Drives typically use the USB mass storage device class to communicate with the host.

SIZE AND STYLE OF PACKAGING
Flash drives come in various, sometimes bulky or novelty, shapes and sizes.Some manufacturers differentiate their products by using elaborate housings, which are often bulky and make the drive difficult to connect to the USB port. Because the USB port connectors on a computer housing are often closely spaced, plugging a flash drive into a USB port may block an adjacent port. Such devices may only carry the USB logo if sold with a separate extension cable.
USB flash drives have been integrated into other commonly-carried items such as watches, pens, and even the Swiss Army Knife; others have been fitted with novelty cases such as toy cars or LEGO bricks. The small size, robustness and cheapness of USB flash drives make them an increasingly popular peripheral for case modding.
Heavy or bulky flash drive packaging can make for unreliable operation when plugged directly into a USB port; this can be relieved by a USB extension cable. Such cables are USB-compatible, but do not conform to the USB standard.

G-CODE

G-Code, or preparatory code or function, are functions in the Numerical control programming language. The G-codes are the codes that position the tool and do the actual work, as opposed to M-codes, that manages the machine; T for tool-related codes. S and F are tool-Speed and tool-Feed, and finally D-codes for tool compensation.

The programming language of Numerical Control (NC) is sometimes informally called G-code. But in actuality, G-codes are only a part of the NC-programming language that controls NC and CNC machine tools. The term Numerical Control was coined at the MIT Servomechanisms Laboratory, and several versions of NC were and are still developed independently by CNC-machine manufacturers. The main standardized version used in the United States was settled by the Electronic Industries Alliance in the early 1960s. A final revision was approved in February 1980 as RS274D. In Europe, the standard DIN 66025 / ISO 6983 is often used instead.
Due to the lack of further development, the immense variety of machine tool configurations, and little demand for interoperability, few machine tool controllers (CNCs) adhere to this standard. Extensions and variations have been added independently by manufacturers, and operators of a specific controller must be aware of differences of each manufacturers' product. When initially introduced, CAM systems were limited in the configurations of tools supported.
Today, the main manufacturers of CNC control systems are GE Fanuc Automation (joint venture of General Electric and Fanuc), Siemens, Mitsubishi, and Heidenhain, but there still exist many smaller and/or older controller systems.
Some CNC machine manufacturers attempted to overcome compatibility difficulties by standardizing on a machine tool controller built by Fanuc. Unfortunately, Fanuc does not remain consistent with RS-274 or its own previous versions, and has been slow at adding new features, as well as exploiting increases in computing power. For example, they changed G70/G71 to G20/G21; they used parentheses for comments which caused difficulty when they introduced mathematical calculations so they use square parentheses for macro calculations; they now have nano technology recently in 32-bit mode but in the Fanuc 15MB control they introduced HPCC (high-precision contour control) which uses a 64-bit RISC (reduced instruction set computer) processor and this now has a 500 block buffer for look-ahead for correct shape contouring and surfacing of small block programs and 5-axis continuous machining.
This is also used for NURBS to be able to work closely with industrial designers and the systems that are used to design flowing surfaces. The NURBS has its origins from the ship building industry and is described by using a knot and a weight as for bending steamed wooden planks and beams.

Common Codes
G-codes are also called preparatory codes, and are any word in a CNC program that begins with the letter 'G'. Generally it is a code telling the machine tool what type of action to perform, such as:
1:rapid move
2:controlled feed move in a straight line or arc
3:series of controlled feed moves that would result in a hole being bored, a workpiece cut (routed) to a specific dimension, or a decorative profile shape added to the edge of a workpiece.
4:change a pallet
5:set tool information such as offset.

(*) M codes control the overall machine, causing it to stop, start, turn on coolant, etc., whereas other codes pertain to the path traversed by cutting tools. Different machine tools may use the same code to perform different functions; even machines that use the same CNC control

A standardized version of G-code known as BCL is used, but only on very few machines.
G-code files may be generated by CAM software. Those applications typically use translators called post-processors to output code optimized for a particular machine type or family. Post-processors are often user-editable to enable further customization, if necessary. G-code is also output by specialized CAD systems used to design printed circuit boards. Such software must be customized for each type of machine tool that it will be used to program. Some G-code is written by hand for volume production jobs. In this environment, the inherent inefficiency of CAM-generated G-code is unacceptable.

Some CNC machines use "conversational" programming, which is a wizard-like programming mode that either hides G-code or completely bypasses the use of G-code. Some popular examples are Southwestern Industries' ProtoTRAK, Mazak's Mazatrol, Hurco's Ultimax and Mori Seiki's CAPS conversational software.

HOME SECURITY SYSTEMS

Choose the Leader in Home Security

ADT understands that your family’s security is your first priority, so we make that our first priority, too. You have our promise that your ADT monitored home security system will provide you with the protection you and your family need.

Why You Need Protection

We understand you have concerns and your need to be protected from:

• Burglary or theft of valuable possessions
• Unwanted intrusions inside and outside your home
• Unwanted visitors to your home
• Danger or threats to your family members
• Vandalism of your private property

The ADT Difference

You have many choices for your home security services. You can feel confident with ADT because you'll receive the best service in the country with the most affordable rates.

• Home Security Services across the United States: ADT is the largest home security business in the United States and offers quality home security services in every state.
• More than 100 Years of Home Security Experience: ADT has been helping to protect customers for over a century. A commitment to security and safety has made ADT America’s choice for home security systems.
• 24-Hour Live Monitoring: You can reach an ADT home security specialist twenty-four hours a day, every day of the year. Also, you'll be backed by a network of 4 interconnected alarm monitoring centers with trained professionals to assist and support you.
• Quick Response Time: ADT immediately contacts your local law enforcement or fire department when your ADT monitored alarm system communicates an emergency
• User-friendly Systems: ADT-monitored home security systems are easy to operate. Your installation expert will teach you how to operate your system, and ADT home security experts are always available to answer any questions you have about your system.
• Keychain Remote Control: You can activate or deactivate your ADT monitored home security system with your keychain remote control.
• Low Monitoring Fee: ADT monthly monitoring fees are reasonable and affordable. Monthly monitoring may save you money on homeowner's insurance premiums.
• Help to Protect against Burglary: You have the option of including fire and carbon monoxide monitoring with your basic monitoring services.
• Latest Security Technology: ADT stays in the forefront of home security system technology and offers customers the best equipment and systems available.

Home security is a serious issue for you when there are concerns for the safety of your family and your property. We offer the state-of-the-art technology and the service that gives you peace of mind and leaves you smiling. We have you and your family covered!

MEMORY CARD READER

A memory card reader is a device, typically having a USB interface, for accessing the data on a memory card such as a CompactFlash (CF), Secure Digital (SD) or MultiMediaCard (MMC). Most card readers also offer write capability, and together with the card, this can function as a pen drive.

A PC having a card reader instead of floppy disk drive.

Some printers and personal computers have a built-in card reader.

A multi card reader is a device used for communication with more than one type of flash memory card. Multi card readers do not have any built-in memory capacity, but are able to accept multiple types and styles of memory cards. Multi card readers typically use a USB interface to connect with a USB-capable computer or other device, enabling users to access information stored in the memory card. The number of compatible memory cards varies from reader to reader and can include more than 20 different types. The number of different memory cards that a multi card reader can accept is expressed as x-in-1, with x being the number of memory cards accepted. Such as 35-in-1. There are three categories of card readers sorted by the type and quantity of the card slots: single card reader , multi card reader and series card reader . However, there are some kinds of memory cards with USB functions that do not need the card reader, such as the Intelligent Stick memory card, which can plug directly into a USB slot.

The USB device class used is 0x08.

SOLAR TRACKING SYSTEM

Single axis tracking systems

As the name says, a single axis tracking system is a system that only movesov
er one axis.
The panels can for instance be fixed in an angle towards south. As the sun rises from the east and goes down in the west, the panels adjust accordingly to increase the efficiency of the panels.The single axis tracking system is the simplest solution and the most common.The single axis tracking system is the simplest solution and the most common one used.

Dual axis tracking systems
A dual axis tracking system is a system that follows the sun in multiple angles ensuring that the sunbeam angle is 100% correct on the panel. By tracking the sun, the efficiency of the solar panels can be increased by 30-40%.The dual axis tracking system is also used for concentrating a solar reflector toward the concentrator on heliostat systems.

LINAK

perfects movement in tracking systems

For tracking systems, LINAK offers several strong electric linear actuator solutions depending on your demand for force, stroke length etc.
For solar trackers LINAK has several solutions, but we have two
main products, which we would like to recommend to you:

FINGER PRINT RECOGNITION

VERIFINGER is a fingerprint identification technology intended for biometric systems developers and integrators. The technology assures system performance with fast, reliable fingerprint matching in 1-to-1 and 1-to-many modes. VeriFinger is available as a software development kit that allows development of PC- and Web-based solutions on Microsoft Windows, Linux and Mac OS X platforms.

Why VeriFinger?
->1000+ end-user product brands in 98 countries used the VeriFinger algorithm over the past 11 years.
->Full NIST MINEX certification and Fingerprint Verification Competition (FVC) awards since 2000.
->Fast rolled and flat fingerprint matching that is tolerant to fingerprint translation, rotation and deformation.
->Compact fingerprint template and unlimited database size.
->Available as multiplatform SDK that supports multiple scanners and multiple programming languages.
->Reasonable prices, flexible licensing and free customer support.

GPS TRACKING DEVICE

A GPS tracking unit is a device that uses the Global Positioning System to determine the precise location of a vehicle, person, or other asset to which it is attached and to record the position of the asset at regular intervals. The recorded location data can be stored within the tracking unit, or it may be transmitted to a central location data base, or internet-connected computer, using a cellular (GPRS), radio, or satellite modem embedded in the unit. This allows the asset's location to be displayed against a map backdrop either in real-time or when analysing the track later, using customized software. Such systems are not new; amateur radio operators have been operating their free GPS-based nationwide realtime Automatic Packet Reporting System (APRS) since 1982.

MODEM

DETAILED PRODUCT DESCRIPTION

GS620 utilities the GSM/GPRS network for convenient and inexpensive data transfer from remote instruments, meters, computers or control systems in either live data or packet data. The terminal is capable of GPRS class 8 and 10 using Siemens MC55 GPRS/GSM module.

OVERVIEW

GPRS /GSM Modem.

GPRS/GSM data transfer

general purpose terminal

transparent transmission

Full support software

data transfer via PC

RS232/485/USB Port

FEATURES

1) GPRS data transmit & receive

2) SMS, voice, data transfer

3) PC communication via RS232/485/USB

4) Direct message transfer mode

5) AT command mode

6) Local control via RS232

7) Same command list for SMS control

Applications

GPRS Network connection setup software

Data Uploading

Data Downloading

PC communication via RS232/485/USB

Data Format, Command List and SDK available for user development

PORTABLE MEDIA PLAYER

A portable multimedia player (PMP),

is a consumer electronics device that is capable of storing and playing digital media. Digital audio players (DAP) that can also display images and play videos are PMPs. Like DAPs, the data is typically stored on a hard drive, microdrive, or flash memory. Other types of electronic devices like cellphones are sometimes referred as PMPs because of their playback capabilities.

The launching of notable players and any milestones or breakthroughs.In 2002, Archos first widely sold a portable media player, the Archos Jukebox Multimedia.Manufacturers have since implemented abilities to view images and play videos into their devices.In 2004, Microsoft attempted to take advantage of the growing PMP market by launching the Portable Media Center (PMC) platform. It was introduced at the 2004 Consumer Electronics Show with the announcement of the Zen Portable Media Center,which was co-developed by Creative. The Microsoft Zune series would later be based on the Gigabeat S, one of the PMC-implemented players.

Typical features
Creative ZEN PMPs are capable of playing digital audio, images, and video. Usually, a colour LCD or OLED screen is used as a display. Various players include the ability to record video, usually with the aid of optional accessories or cables, and audio, with a built-in microphone or from a line-out cable or FM tuner. Some players include readers for memory cards, which are advertised to equip players with extra storage or transferring media. In some players, features of a personal organizer are emulated, or support for games, like the iriver clix (through compatibility of Adobe Flash Lite) or the PlayStation Portable, is included.

NEW WORLD

CLICK

When words have faded, the picture remain, we recall a hundred memories it just a single picture .That’s the power that pictures have over words. And it is no wonder threat many aspire to capture the picture that speaks a thousand words. Nepal offers ample beautiful oppurnities for aspiring linesmen to mark their on legacy.It is the simple interest that turned into passion made anyone to follow it as carrier. Canon Power-shot which has a Digital Single Lens Reflex i.e. Cannon 400D.With DSLR one can take between photographers competition and can compose photographs with enhanced clarity and pixels something we could feel extra.Having a keen interest in portrait and candid photography, 10-megapixel DSLR Nikon D200 is a differently charm, in using DSLR-as it contains so many functions that you can play with.Amateur photographers should user DSLR because it has dynamic picture quality functionaries with adjustable pixel size from high to low ranges and compensate exposure with white balance setting.

GETTING THE BASIC CORRECT

Renowned photographer RAJ BHAI SUWAL suggests amateurs to know and leant all its functions before using DSL’s. Even before that he suggests a few tips for amateurs to think over before purchasing one.Always opt for the latest model.“Technology the latest model is the upgraded cession of the older ones and it is always wise to aim for the new model.” He suggests.” you can explore more with the new DSLR which you won’t be able to be in the old models.”Always buy brands similar to your friends.When you buy the same brand kits and accessories like the one your friends are using then there is possibility of sharing and exploring more with similar models in hand.Before you move into camera stores, visit dpreview.com.
I recommend the every amateur to visit dpriview.com before they waste their miney.dpreview.com is like an encyclopedia of cameras around the world; one can get all the information about any camera and make a wise decision before getting one.Buy one camera body with only in lens at a time.This will save amateurs lens from getting dust. Frequent changing if lens creates the maximum possibilities of getting dust in the lens which will ultimately damage the camera in the lens, which will ultimately damage the camera in the ling run.Know your specialization take into account different range of lenses accordingly “if you like landscapes, go for wide-angle lens to high range lenses. For candid Short Zoom lens work finr.Accordingly.105 mm prime lens is perfect for portraits, while wide-angle lens is good for interior shoots. In this way choose lenses and accessories avowing to your field of interest,”Always go thoroughly through the instruction manual before using it.“Before using the model you have just bought, it is a must to go through the manual. The manual will offer minor details clearing our basic queries regarding the mechanisms involved.Always store your camera in a wooden cupboard with thermocol and Celica gel” This protects your camera from moisture and also from unexpected damages. Thermocol helps your camera retain the same temperature even if the actual temperature slices down to 0 or increases to 35.”

HOME THEATRE BLAST

Home theatre is the dream of every moviegoers. A room in a house filled with resounding sound and visual uncomingpromisingly good is not less appealing than a movie hall.It needs visual and audio quality to make a real life impression on the viewers. Philips Showrooms in the valley have made this deram come true by introducing a set of home theatre constituting a 42 inch LCD along a digital home entertainment audio and video system. LCD screens have never let down a viewer's choice. As for the home theatre, it plays the perfect role with its slick touch panels and wide-angle views. Philips Aura 42 inch LCD with high pixels HD engine and Full HD 1080p LCD providing ambilight spectra is the head of the home theatre system. With 1920*1080p resolution , and 100 Hz clear LCD quality, the picture in the LCD screen is crystal clear. As for the sound and visual processors thr digital home entertaining audio and video system plays the vital role.Philips HDMI 1080i audio and video set in which there are satellilte speakers and a DVD is the perfect application for home theatre installment. The set comes with a DVD player the three pairs of speakers , which has the power to inspire the similar movie hall thrill ambience in ones home.The DVD even has UBS ports and MP3 Line-in-use plugs so that any sing and videos can be easily played in the LCD. Even Karaoke singing can be done and the Karaoke scoring feature, the DVD can serioiusly rate ones singinmg and give a humourous picture according to the score marked.

GADGETS

CLASSIC MOON LABTOP

This crescent shaped sexy laptop is named Moonlight Concept Laptop. This rather stylish concept has duel-curved screens that helps reduce eye stress by maintaining an average distance from the eye to the laptop screen. Between the two screens the upper one serves as the monitor and is bigger (16:9) while the other one is smaller (4:3) The lower 4:3 display has a screen that can be used, like a touchpad mouse or run a mini OS in the background, or just as an annex of the bigger one.The sensor controlled frame lights up in dark as long as the user wants. The pair of long legs is for lifting the laptop and proper placement of the keyboard

HANDY VIDEO RECORDER
Pinnacle UBS Video Recorder is a new recording device in town. This innovative video transfer device records analog video into any USB 2.0 storage device without the need of a PC. With just the press of a button, the device can transfer recording from a TV, DVD player, PVR, camrecorder or set-top-box directly to Apple iPod Video, iPod nano, iPod classic, Sony PSP, Sony PSP slim, USB hard drive. The handy portable size of this recorder is the other appealing aspect.

BLUE TOOTH THAT RULES

Platronics' Savi Go

is a master of headset for it is capable of switching calls between mobile phone and those received through PC. . Pklug the Savi's Blue tooth dongle into USB port, and it can be used with virtually any PC-based softphone including Skype, Google Talk , or Microsoft Communicator. Then pair it with Bluetooth enabled cell phone and switch between the two with a touch of a button . No mote scrambling to swap headsets when the other one jingles. The user can roam up to 200 feet feom his/her desk with out dropping a call . Savi Go is acvailable in over-the-head or easy-fit earloop styles and offering one-touch control over call answer/end,volume, and mute.

LIFHT UP WILLI

Now where is a must have device for all the proud owner of Nintendo Wii.

Named Wii CrystalCooler this stand is nmodt just about adding "cool" factor to teh console but is also very useful for the console's linglife. The two major functions of htis stand are to cool down dthe system when i standby or in use and more importandlyto add 'X' factor to the plain white Wii.

SPECS

->Built in high velocity Fan that reduces the sonsole temperature

->Cool Blue LED Light addsstyle to the gaming setup

->ON/OFF switch for both LED light and the fan

->USB Power

I-PHONE

IPHONE

IPHONE is the smart phone made by Apple that combines an IPOD a tablet,PC a digital camera and a cellular phone. The device inclues internet browsing and networking capabillities.After its debut in 2007 iphone come up with faster and more advanced features. the iPhone 3G puts more features at your fingertips.

Better email management capability and the most asvanced web browser ever on a portable device are among the reasons why it is considered one of the best mobile devices ever created.

IN TOUCH ANYWHERE ANYTIME

Faster internet network and unlimited web browsing are why the iPhone can be the chosed icon.

One can get touch with the whole world whenever it is the choice about the gadgets freaks and for the easy functions and heavy graphic games.

IN A NICHE OF ITS OWN

Even the smartest of the smartest phones look feeble in comparision to a 3G iPhone.

The three-inch iPhones have 480*320 pixel screen display. With two megapixels, the current iPhoen camera is considered the best.

Global Positioning System(GPS) is another great features of the iPhone. Apple/Google have come up with the GPS system that uses Wifi access pints and cell towers to pinpoint the iPhone's location.

CREATING EXCLUSIVSE NETWORKS

Gadgets freaks can be forgiven for going ga-ga over the iPhone ,however , it is also a very useful and helpful device for enterprenuers and corporate.

Using the iPhones, and enterprise can easily create applications customised to its business needs. You can take benefits of its key iPhone technologies such as multimeter, fast wireless connectivity and GPS.

Polished with rich HTML format, it helps email look like email viewed in your computer. With the support of Microsoft wors, excel, and PowerPoint,PDF,JPEG and now iWork, attachments can be viewed exactly as they were designed to be.

And now that iPhones has a builtin support for Microsoft Exchange Activesync,users get all benefits of push email.

GLOBAL FAMILY

Apple boasts about having more than six million iPhone users since its debut. And the firm was on course to sell 10 million iPhines by the end of 2008.

digital camera

A digital camera (or digicam for short) is a camera that takes video or still photographs, or both, digitally by recording images via an electronic image sensor.
Many compact digital still cameras can record sound and moving video as well as still photographs. In the Western market, digital cameras outsell their 35 mm film counterparts.
Digital cameras can do things film cameras cannot: displaying images on a screen immediately after they are recorded, storing thousands of images on a single small memory device, recording video with sound, and deleting images to free storage space.
Digital cameras are incorporated into many devices ranging from PDAs and mobile phones (called camera phones) to vehicles. The Hubble Space Telescope and other astronomical devices are essentially specialised digital cameras.

Compact digital cameras
Compact cameras are designed to be small and portable and are particularly suitable for casual and "snapshot" use, thus are also called point-and-shoot camera. The smallest, generally less than 20 mm thick, are described as subcompacts or "ultra-compacts". Compact cameras are usually designed to be easy to use, sacrificing advanced features and picture quality for compactness and simplicity; images can usually only be stored using lossy compression (JPEG). Most have a built-in flash usually of low power, sufficient for nearby subjects. Live preview is almost always used to frame the photo. They may have limited motion picture capability. Compacts often have macro capability, but if they have zoom capability the range is usually less than for bridge and DSLR cameras. They have a greater depth of field, allowing objects within a large range of distances from the camera to be in sharp focus.

Bridge digital camera
Bridge or SLR-like cameras are higher-end digital cameras that physically resemble DSLRs and share with them some advanced features, but share with compacts the framing of the photo using live preview and small sensor sizes.

Digital single-lens reflex camera
Digital single-lens reflex cameras (DSLRs) are digital cameras based on film single-lens reflex cameras (SLRs), both types are characterized by the existence of a mirror and reflex system. See the main article on DSLRs for a detailed treatment of this category.

Digital rangefinders
A rangefinder is a user-operated optical mechanism to measure subject distance once widely used on film cameras. Most digital cameras measure subject distance automatically using acoustic or electronic techniques, but it is not customary to say that they have a rangefinder. The term rangefinder alone is sometimes used to mean a rangefinder camera, that is, a film camera equipped with a rangefinder, as distinct from an SLR or a simple camera with no way to measure distance.

The arrival of true digital cameras
Nikon D1 digital camera of 1999
1999 saw the introduction of the Nikon D1, a 2.74 megapixel camera that was the first digital SLR developed entirely by a major manufacturer, and at a cost of under $6,000 at introduction was affordable by professional photographers and high end consumers. This camera also used Nikon F-mount lenses, which meant film photographers could use many of the same lenses they already owned.

Image resolution
The resolution of a digital camera is often limited by the camera sensor (typically a CCD or CMOS sensor chip) that turns light into discrete signals, replacing the job of film in traditional photography. The sensor is made up of millions of "buckets" that essentially count the number of photons that strike the sensor. This means that the brighter the image at a given point on the sensor, the larger the value that is ready for that pixel. Depending on the physical structure of the sensor, a color filter array may be used which requires a demosaicing/interpolation algorithm. The number of resulting pixels in the image determines its "pixel count". For example, a 640x480 image would have 307,200 pixels, or approximately 307 kilopixels; a 3872x2592 image would have 10,036,224 pixels, or approximately 10 megapixels.

The choice of method for a given capture is determined largely by the subject matter. It is usually inappropriate to attempt to capture a subject that moves with anything but a single-shot system. However, the higher color fidelity and larger file sizes and resolutions available with multi-shot and scanning backs make them attractive for commercial photographers working with stationary subjects and large-format photographs.

Printing Photos
Many modern cameras support the PictBridge standard, which allows them to send data directly to a PictBridge-capable computer printer without the need for a computer.
Wireless connectivity can also provide for printing photos without a cable connection.
Polaroid has introduced a printer integrated into its digital camera which creates a small, printed copy of a photo. This is reminiscent of the original instant camera, popularized by Polaroid thirty-four years ago.

Modes
Many digital cameras have preset modes for different applications. Within the constraints of correct exposure various parameters can be changed, including exposure, aperture, focusing, light metering, white balance, and equivalent sensitivity. For example a portrait might use a wider aperture to render the background out of focus, and would seek out and focus on a human face rather than other image content.

CAMERA

A CAMERA is a device that records images, either as a still photograph or as moving images known as videos or movies. The term comes from the camera obscura (Latin for "dark chamber"), an early mechanism of projecting images where an entire room functioned as a real-time imaging system; the modern camera evolved from the camera obscura.
Cameras may work with the light of the visible spectrum or with other portions of the electromagnetic spectrum. A camera generally consists of an enclosed hollow with an opening (aperture) at one end for light to enter, and a recording or viewing surface for capturing the light at the other end. A majority of cameras have a lens positioned in front of the camera's opening to gather the incoming light and focus all or part of the image on the recording surface. The diameter of the aperture is often controlled by a diaphragm mechanism, but some cameras have a fixed-size aperture.

Mechanics

Traditional cameras capture light onto photographic film or photographic plate. Video and digital cameras use electronics, usually a charge coupled device (CCD) or sometimes a CMOS sensor to capture images which can be transferred or stored in tape or computer memory inside the camera for later playback or processing.
Cameras that capture many images in sequence are known as movie cameras or as ciné cameras in Europe; those designed for single images are still cameras. However these categories overlap.

As still cameras are often used to capture moving images in special effects work and modern digital cameras are often able to trivially switch between still and motion recording modes. A video camera is a category of movie camera that captures images electronically (either using analogue or digital technology).

Lens
The lens of a camera captures the light from the subject and brings it to a focus on the film or detector. The design and manufacture of the lens is critical to the quality of the photograph being taken. The technological revolution in camera design in the 18th century revolutionised optical glass manufacture and lens design with great benefits for modern lens manufacture in a wide range of optical instruments from reading glasses to microscopes. Pioneers included Zeiss and Leitz.

Focus
Auto-focus systems can capture a subject a variety of ways; here, the focus is on the person's image in the mirror. Due to the optical properties of photographic lenses, only objects within a limited range of distances from the camera will be reproduced clearly. The process of adjusting this range is known as changing the camera's focus. There are various ways of focusing a camera accurately. The simplest cameras have fixed focus and use a small aperture and wide-angle lens to ensure that everything within a certain range of distance from the lens, usually around 3 metres (10 ft) to infinity, is in reasonable focus.

Large format camera
The large format camera is a direct successor of the early plate cameras and remain in use for high quality photography and for technical, architectural and industrial photography. There are three common types, the monorail camera, the field camera and the press camera. All use large format sheets of film, although there are backs for medium format 120-film available for most systems, and have an extensible bellows with the lens and shutter mounted on a lens plate at the front. These cameras have a wide range of movements allowing very close control of focus and perspective.

Medium format camera
The medium-format cameras has a film negative size somewhere in between the large format cameras and the smaller 35mm cameras. Typically these systems use 120- or 220-film. The most common sizes being 6x4.5 cm, 6x6 cm and 6x7 cm. The designs of this kind of camera shows greater variation than their larger brethren. Ranging from monorail systems, via the classic Hasselblad model with separate backs, to smaller rangefinder cameras. There are even compact amateur cameras available in this format.

Folding camera
The introduction of films enabled the existing designs for plate cameras to be made much smaller and for the base-plate to be hinged so that it could be folded up compressing the bellows. These designs were very compact and small models were dubbed Vest pocket cameras.

Box camera
Box cameras were introduced as a budget level camera and had few if any controls. The original box Brownie models had a small reflex viewfinder mounted on the top of the camera and had no aperture or focussing controls and just a simple shutter. Later models such as the Brownie 127 had larger direct view optical viewfinders together with a curved film path to help compensate for the imperfections of the simple lens system. Despite their lack of controls, box cameras sold in large numbers and helped to popularise photography for the wider public.

Rangefinder camera
As camera and lens technology developed and wide aperture lenses became more common range-finder cameras were introduced to make focussing more precise. The range finder had two separated viewfinder windows one of which was linked to the focusing mechanisms and moved right or left as the focussing ring was turned. The two separate images were brought together on a ground glass viewing screen. When vertical lines in the object being photographed met exactly in the combined image, the object was in focus. A normal composition viewfinder was also provided.

Single-lens reflex camera
In the single-lens reflex camera the photographer see the scene through the camera lens. This avoids the problems of parallax which occurs when the viewfinder or viewing lens is separated from the taking lens

Almost all SLR used a front surfaced mirror in the optical path to direct the light from the lens via a viewing screen and pentaprism to the eyepiece. At the time of exposure the mirror flipped up out of the light path before the shutter opened. Some early cameras experimented other methods of providing through the lens viewing including the use of a semi transparent pellicle as in the CanonPellix and others with a small periscope such as in the Corfield Periflex series.

Twin-lens reflex camera
Twin-lens reflex cameras used a pair of nearly identical lenses, one to form the image and one as a viewfinder. The lens were arranged with the viewing lens immediately above the taking lens. The viewing lens projects an image onto a viewing screen which can be seen from above. Some manufacturers such as Mamiya also provided a reflex head to attach to the viewing screen to all the camera to be held to the eye when in use. The advantage of a TLR was that it could be easily focussed using the viewing screen and that under most circumstances the view seen in the viewing screen was identical to that recorded on film. At close distances however, parallax errors were encountered and some cameras also included an indicator to show what part of the composition would be excluded.

Movie camera
A ciné camera or movie camera is a type of photographic camera which takes a rapid sequence of photographs on strips of film. In contrast to a still camera, which captures a single snapshot at a time, the ciné camera takes a series of images, each called a "frame" through the use of an intermittent mechanism. The frames are later played back in a ciné projector at a specific speed, called the "frame rate" (number of frames per second). While viewing, a person's eyes and brain merge the separate pictures together to create the illusion of motion. The first ciné camera was built around 1888 and by 1890 several types were being manufactured.

MPEG-4

MPEG-4 is a multimedia container format standardwhich is most commonly used to store digital audio and digital video streams, especially those defined by MPEG, but can also be used to store other data such as subtitles and still images. Like most modern container formats, MPEG-4 allows streaming over the Internet. A separate hint track is used to include streaming information in the file. The official filename extension for MPEG-4 files is .mp4, thus the container format is often referred to simply as MP4.
Some devices advertised as "MP4 players" are simply MP3 players that also play AMV video and/or some other video format, and do not play MPEG-4 format. This can become rather confusing for potential buyers.

MPEG-4 Part 14 is based upon ISO base media file format which is directly based upon Apple’s QuickTime container format.MPEG-4 is essentially identical to the MOV format, but formally specifies support for Initial Object Descriptors (IOD) and other MPEG features.MPEG-4 revises and completely replaces , in which the file format for MPEG-4 content was previously specified.

The MPEG-4 file format specification was created on the basis of the QuickTime format specification published in 2001. The MP4 file format defined some extensions over ISO Base Media File Format to support MPEG-4 visual/audio codecs and various MPEG-4 Systems features such as object descriptors and scene descriptions. Some of these extensions are also used by other formats based on ISO base media file format (e.g. 3GP).List of all registered extensions for ISO Base Media File Format is published on the official registration authority website www.mp4ra.org. The registration authority for code-points (identifier values) in "MP4 Family" files is Apple Computer Inc. and it is named in Annex D (informative) in MPEG-4 Codec designers should register the codes they invent, but the registration is not mandatory and some of invented and used code-points are not registered. When someone is creating a new specification derived from the ISO Base Media File Format, all the existing specifications should be used both as examples and a source of definitions and technology. If an existing specification already covers how a particular media type is stored in the file format (e.g. MPEG-4 audio or video in MP4), that definition should be used and a new one should not be invented.

MP4 versus
The existence of two different file extensions for naming audio-only MP4 files has been a source of confusion among users and multimedia playback software. Since MPEG-4 is a container format, MPEG-4 files may contain any number of audio, video, and even subtitle streams, making it impossible to determine the type of streams in an MPEG-4 file based on its filename extension alone. In response, Apple Inc. started using and popularizing the .m4a file extension. Software capable of audio/video playback should recognize files with either .m4a or .mp4 file extensions, as would be expected, as there are no file format differences between the two. Most software capable of creating MPEG-4 audio will allow the user to choose the filename extension of the created MPEG-4 files.
While the only official file extension defined by the standard is .mp4, various file extensions are commonly used to indicate intended content:
MPEG-4 files with audio and video generally use the standard .mp4 extension.
Audio-only MPEG-4 files generally have a .m4a extension. This is especially true of non-protected content.
MPEG-4 files with audio streams encrypted by FairPlay Digital Rights Management as sold through the iTunes Store use the .m4p extension. iTunes Plus tracks are unencrypted and use .m4a accordingly.
Audio book and podcast files, which also contain metadata including chapter markers, images, and hyperlinks, can use the extension .m4a, but more commonly use the .m4b extension. An .m4a audio file cannot "bookmark" (remember the last listening spot), whereas .m4b extension files can.
The Apple iPhone uses MPEG-4 audio for its ringtones but uses the .m4r extension rather than the .m4a extension.
Raw MPEG-4 Visual bitstreams are named .m4v.
Mobile phones use 3GP, an implementation of MPEG-4(a.k.a MPEG-4/JPEG2000 ISO Base Media file format), similar to MP4. It uses .3gp and .3g2 extensions. These files also store non-MPEG-4 data (H.263, AMR, TX3G).
The common but non-standard use of the extensions .m4a and .m4v is due to the popularity of Apple’s iPod, iPhone, and iTunes Store. Without modification, Nintendo's DSi and Sony's PSP can also play M4A.

Data streams
Almost any kind of data can be embedded in MPEG-4 files through private streams; the widely-supported codecs and additional data streams are:
Video: MPEG-4 Part 10 (or H.264, also known as MPEG-4 AVC), MPEG-4 Part 2, MPEG-2, and MPEG-1.
Audio: MPEG-2 Part 7 (also known as AAC), Apple Lossless, MPEG-1 Audio Layer 3 (also known as MP3), MPEG-4 Part 3, MPEG-1 Audio Layer II (also known as MP2), MPEG-1 Audio Layer I, CELP (speech), TwinVQ (very low bitrates), SAOL (MIDI).
Subtitles: MPEG-4 Timed Text (also known as 3GPP Timed Text).
Some private stream examples include Nero's use of DVD subtitles (Vobsub) in MP4 files

printing press

A printing press is a mechanical device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a medium (such as paper or cloth), thereby transferring an image. The mechanical systems involved were first assembled in Germany by the goldsmith Johannes Gutenberg around 1440, based on existing screw-presses used to press cloth, grapes etc., and possibly to print woodcuts, which were printed in Europe before Gutenberg. Although both woodblock printing and movable type printing press technologies were already developed first in China, and Korea in East Asia several hundred years earlier, Gutenberg was the first in Western Europe to develop a printing press.

The use of a press was a key technological difference provided European book publishers increased profits over their ancient Chinese counterparts—the screw-based presses used in wine and olive oil production. Attaining mechanical sophistication in approximately the year 1000, devices for applying pressure on a flat-plane were common in Europe.

The printing press was also a factor in the establishment of a community of scientists who could easily communicate their discoveries through the establishment of widely disseminated scholarly journals, helping to bring on the scientific revolution. Because of the printing press, authorship became more meaningful and profitable. It was suddenly important who had said or written what, and what the precise formulation and time of composition was. This allowed the exact citing of references, producing the rule, "One Author, one work , one piece of information" (Giesecke, 1989; 325). Before, the author was less important, since a copy of

Aristotle made in Paris would not be exactly identical to one made in Bologna. For many works prior to the printing press, the name of the author was entirely lost.
Because the printing process ensured that the same information fell on the same pages, page numbering, tables of contents, and indices became common, though they previously had not been unknown. The process of reading was also changed, gradually changing over several centuries from oral readings to silent, private reading. The wider availability of printed materials also led to a drastic rise in the adult literacy rate throughout Europe.

Within fifty or sixty years of the invention of the printing press, the entire classical canon had been reprinted and widely promulgated throughout Europe .Now that more people had access to knowledge both new and old, more people could discuss these works. Furthermore, now that book production was a more commercial enterprise, the first copyright laws were passed to protect what we now would call intellectual property rights. A second outgrowth of this popularization of knowledge was the decline of Latin as the language of most published works, to be replaced by the vernacular language of each area, increasing the variety of published works. Paradoxically, the printed word also helped to unify and standardize the spelling and syntax of these vernaculars, in effect 'decreasing' their variability. This rise in importance of national languages as opposed to pan-European Latin is cited as one of the causes of the rise of nationalism in Europe.

The art of book printing
For years, book printing was considered a true art form. Typesetting, or the placement of the characters on the page, including the use of ligatures, was passed down from master to apprentice. In Germany, the art of typesetting was termed the "black art," in allusion to the ink-covered printers. The Black Art Press & Print in Baltimore, MD adopted their name for this reason. It has largely been replaced by computer typesetting programs, which make it easy to get similar results more quickly and with less physical labor. Some practitioners continue to print books the way Gutenberg did. For example, there is a yearly convention of traditional book printers in Mainz, Germany.
Some theorists, such as McLuhan, Eisenstein, Kittler, and Giesecke, see an "alphabetic monopoly" as having developed from printing, removing the role of the image from society. Other authors stress that printed works themselves are a visual medium. Certainly, modern developments in printing have revitalized the role of illustrations.

The Industrial Revolution
The Gutenberg press was much more efficient than manual copying and still was largely unchanged in the eras of John Baskerville and Giambattista Bodoni—over 300 years later. By 1800, Lord Stanhope had constructed a press completely from cast iron, reducing the force required by 90% while doubling the size of the printed area. While Stanhope's "mechanical theory" had improved the efficiency of the press, it still was only capable of 250 sheets per hour.German printer Friedrich Koenig would be the first to design a non-manpowered machine—using steam. Having moved to London in 1804, Koenig soon met Thomas Bensley and secured financial support for his project in 1807.Patented in 1810, Koenig had designed a steam press "much like a hand press connected to a steam engine."The first production trial of this model occurred in April 1811. He produced his machine with assistance from German engineer Andreas Friedrich Bauer.

Koenig and Bauer sold two of their first models to The Times in London in 1814, capable of 1,100 impressions per hour. The first edition so printed was on November 28, 1814. They went on to perfect the early model so that it could print on both sides of a sheet at once. This began the long process of making newspapers available to a mass audience (which in turn helped spread literacy), and from the 1820s changed the nature of book production, forcing a greater standardization in titles and other metadata. Their company Koenig & Bauer AG is still one of the world's largest manufacturers of printing presses today.

Later on in the middle of the 19th century the rotary printing press (invented in 1833 in the United States by Richard M. Hoe) allowed millions of copies of a page in a single day. Mass production of printed works flourished after the transition to rolled paper, as continuous feed allowed the presses to run at a much faster pace.
Also, in the middle of the 19th century, there was a separate development of jobbing presses, small presses capable of printing small-format pieces such as billheads, letterheads, business cards, and envelopes. Jobbing presses were capable of quick set-up (average makeready time for a small job was under 15 minutes) and quick production (even on treadle-powered jobbing presses it was considered normal to get 1,000 impressions per hour with one pressman, with speeds of 1,500 iph often attained on simple envelope work). Job printing emerged as a reasonably cost-effective duplicating solution for commerce at this time.

A late 1930's Platen printing press model
By the late 1930s or early 1940s, printing presses had increased substantially in efficiency: a model by Platen Printing Press was capable of performing 2,500 to 3,000 impressions per hour.
Later inventions in this field include the following:
Lithography
Offset printing
Desktop publishing
Electronic publishing
Computer printer
Composing stick